Abbreviations
Examples
Rebecca Smith, MD
Dr. Smith
Joseph Wilson, Jr., PhD
10:30 am
Bethesda, MD
228 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, IL 60604
vs.
i.e. (means that is; follow with comma)
e.g. (means for example; follow with comma)
Guidelines
An abbreviation is a truncated word; an acronym is made up of parts of the phrase it stands for and is pronounced as a word (for example, AIDS); an initialism is an acronym that is pronounced as individual letters (DNA, RT-PCR). For the purposes of this section, “abbreviation” will refer to all of these.
Do not use abbreviations that the reader would not quickly recognize. Some general principles:
BEFORE A NAME: Abbreviate titles when used before a full name: Dr., Gov., Lt. Gov., Mr., Mrs., Rep., the Rev., Sen., and certain military designations.
AFTER A NAME: Abbreviate junior or senior after an individual’s name (Jr., Sr.). Abbreviate company, corporation, incorporated, and limited when used after the name of a corporate entity.
Academic degrees are abbreviated after an individual’s name (MD, PhD).
WITH DATES OR NUMERALS: Use the abbreviations AD, BC, am, pm, and No. (do use a period with No.). Abbreviate months only when required by space constraints.
Examples: In 450 BC; at 9:30 am; in room No. 6; on September 16.
IN NUMBERED ADDRESSES: Abbreviate avenue, boulevard, and street in numbered addresses: He lives on Pennsylvania Avenue. He lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Ave.
STATES: The names of states and the United States should be abbreviated as two-character postal abbreviations when they come after the city (St. Louis, MO).
CAPITALS, PERIODS: Generally, omit periods in acronyms and initialisms unless the result could be confusing: MD, PhD, US, EU, UN, ID, CIA, FBI.
Capitalization
Examples
President and CEO Andrea Ferris
Andrea Ferris, LUNGevity’s president and CEO
Robert L. Keith, MD, professor of medicine and cancer biology at University of Colorado, Denver
VCU Massey Cancer Center Director Robert Winn, MD
Dr. Winn, director of the VCU Massey Cancer Center
Bachelor of Science, but bachelor's degree
American, Christian, Christianity, English, French, Marxism, Shakespearean
french fries, india ink, herculean, pasteurize, quixotic
Guidelines
Use a capital letter only if you can justify it by one of the principles listed here.
Capitalize means to use uppercase for the first letter of a word. All caps or uppercase means to use capital letters for the entire word.
PROPER NOUNS: Capitalize nouns that are the unique identification of a specific person, place, or thing: John, Mary, America, Boston, England.
PROPER NAMES: Capitalize common nouns when they are an integral part of the full name of a person, place, or thing: Mississippi River, Fleet Street.
Lowercase these common nouns when they stand alone in subsequent references: the river, the street.
POPULAR NAMES: Some places and events have popular names that are essentially the equivalent of proper names: the Combat Zone (a section of downtown Boston), the Main Line (a group of Philadelphia suburbs), the South Side (of Chicago).
Shortened versions of the proper names of one-of-a-kind events should also be capitalized: the Series (for the World Series), the Derby (for the Kentucky Derby).
DERIVATIVES: Capitalize words that are derived from a proper noun and still depend on it for their meaning: American, Christian, Christianity, English, French, Marxism, Shakespearean.
Lowercase words that are derived from a proper noun but no longer depend on it for their meaning: french fries, herculean, malapropism, pasteurize, quixotic, venetian blind, roman numeral.
SENTENCES: Capitalize the first word in a sentence.
COMPOSITIONS: Capitalize words of four or more letters and all verbs in the names of books, movies, plays, poems, operas, songs, radio and television programs, works of art, etc.
ABBREVIATIONS: Capital letters apply in most cases.
TITLES OF PEOPLE AND THINGS: Capitalize formal titles when used immediately before a name: President Joe Biden, Pope Francis.
Lowercase and spell out titles when they are not used with an individual's name: The president issued a statement. The senator introduced the legislation.
Lowercase and spell out titles when they are set off from a name by commas: The vice president, Kamala Harris, was elected in 2020. Pope Francis, the current pope, was born in Argentina.
Use lowercase at all times for terms that are job descriptions rather than formal titles: astronaut Sally Ride, poet Maya Angelou.
Commas
Examples
1,000 cases
10,250 participants
red, white, and blue
a large, pedunculated tumor (but a large skin lesion)
Before starting a new exercise regimen, you should consult your physician.
On April 4, 2021, I will leave on a trip.
Guidelines
As with all punctuation, clarity is the biggest rule. If a comma does not help make clear what is being said, it should not be there. If omitting a comma could lead to confusion or misinterpretation, then use the comma.
IN A SERIES: Use commas to separate elements in a series, including before the conjunction, in a simple series: The flag is red, white, and blue.
If a complex series has internal commas, use semicolons instead to separate the elements: There are three major types of non-small cell lung cancer: lung adenocarcinoma, the most common type; squamous cell lung cancer, sometimes called epidermoid carcinoma; and large cell lung cancer.
WITH EQUAL ADJECTIVES: Use commas to separate a series of adjectives equal in rank. If the commas could be replaced by the word and without changing the sense, the adjectives are equal: a thoughtful, precise manner; a dark, dangerous street.
Use no comma when the last adjective before a noun is understood to be an integral part of the noun: a cheap fur coat (the noun phrase is fur coat); a new, blue spring bonnet.
WITH NONESSENTIAL CLAUSES: A clause is nonessential if the sentence would still make sense without it. A nonessential clause must be set off by commas. An essential clause must not be set off from the rest of a sentence by commas.
Lung adenocarcinoma, which is more common than squamous cell lung cancer, may be further classified by biomarkers.
Below is a list of drugs that have been shown to be effective for this condition.
WITH NONESSENTIAL PHRASES: The same rules apply as for clauses.
Dr. Johansson was accompanied by his wife, Gertrude.
His colleague George Winston was also there.
[Dr. Johansson presumably has only one wife but multiple colleagues, hence the difference.]
WITH INTRODUCTORY CLAUSES AND PHRASES: A comma is used to separate an introductory clause or phrase from the main clause, unless the phrase is very short and the meaning is clear:
When he had tired of the mad pace of New York, he moved to Dubuque.
During the night he heard many noises.
On the street below, a curious crowd gathered.
INTRODUCING DIRECT QUOTES: Use a comma to introduce a complete one-sentence quotation within a paragraph: Wallace said, "She spent six months in Argentina and came back speaking English with a Spanish accent." But use a colon to introduce quotations of more than one sentence.
Do not use a comma at the start of an indirect or partial quotation: He said the award put him "firmly on the road to completing this groundbreaking work."
BEFORE ATTRIBUTION: Use a comma instead of a period at the end of a quote that is followed by attribution: "Write clearly and concisely," she said.
Do not use a comma, however, if the quoted statement ends with a question mark or exclamation point: "Why should I?" he asked.
IN LARGE FIGURES: Use a comma for most figures greater than 999. The major exceptions are street addresses (1234 Main St.), broadcast frequencies (1460 kHz), room numbers, serial numbers, telephone numbers, and years (1876).
PLACEMENT WITH QUOTES: Commas always go inside quotation marks.
WITH FULL DATES: When a phrase refers to a month, day, and year, set off the year with a comma: February 14, 2022, is the target date.
Hyphens
Examples
nonprofit
decision-maker, decision-making
first-line therapy
fully vetted website
healthcare
health-literate materials
lifesaving
little-known fact
event-day activities
kickoff (as a noun; but kick off the event)
multifaceted
low-dose CT scan (but the scanner uses a low dose)
lung cancer-focused nonprofit
ongoing
policymaker, policymaking
self-evaluation
10-, 15-, or 20-minute intervals
But skip the hyphen for commonly used compounds:
third grade teacher, chocolate chip cookie, etc.
Guidelines
AVOID AMBIGUITY: Use a hyphen whenever ambiguity would result if it were omitted. He recovered his health. He re-covered the leaky roof. The story is a re-creation. The park is for recreation.
COMPOUND MODIFIERS: A compound modifier — two or more words that express a single concept — should use a hyphen if it’s needed to make the meaning clear and avoid unintended meanings: little-known song, loose-knit group, low-income workers.
Other two-word terms, particularly those used as nouns, have evolved to be commonly recognized as, in effect, one word. No hyphen is needed when such terms are used as modifiers if the meaning is clear and unambiguous without the hyphen: small cell lung cancer, third grade teacher, chocolate chip cookie.
Hyphenate well- combinations before a noun, but not after: a well-known judge, but the judge is well known.
Generally, also use a hyphen in modifiers of three or more words: a know-it-all attitude, black-and-white photography, a sink-or-swim moment, a win-at-all-costs approach.
No hyphen is needed to link a two-word phrase that includes the adverb very and all adverbs ending in -ly: a very good time, an widely used resource.
Many combinations that are hyphenated before a noun are not hyphenated after a noun: She works full time. The calendar is up to date.
But use a hyphen if confusion could otherwise result, especially with longer compound modifiers or those that are not as commonly used: The steel surface should be blast-cleaned. The technology is state-of-the-art. The test was multiple choice and fill-in-the-blank.
COMPOUND VERBS: Don’t use a hyphen in phrasal verbs (a verb combined with an adverb, a preposition or both). It’s back up the car, not back-up the car. In general, do hyphenate other compound verbs: She speed-walked her way to victory; he spoon-fed the baby.
COMPOUND NOUNS: Hyphenate compounds when needed to avoid confusion: merry-go-round, sister-in-law, hand-me-downs.
COMPOUND PROPER NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES: Do not use a hyphen to designate dual heritage: African American, Italian American, Mexican American.
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES: Generally we do not hyphenate when using a prefix with a word starting with a consonant. But there are exceptions.
Prefixes that generally require hyphens include self-, all-, ex-, half-. Suffixes that generally require hyphens include -free, -based, -elect.
Three rules are constant:
- Use a hyphen if the prefix ends in a vowel and the word that follows begins with the same vowel. Exceptions: cooperate, coordinate, and double-e combinations such as preestablish, preeminent, preeclampsia, preempt.
- Use a hyphen if the word that follows is capitalized.
- Use a hyphen to join doubled prefixes: sub-subparagraph.
AVOID DUPLICATED VOWELS, TRIPLED CONSONANTS: Examples: anti-intellectual, shell-like. But double-e combinations usually don’t get a hyphen: preempted, reelected.
MULTIPLE COMPOUND MODIFIERS: If the phrase is easily recognized without hyphens, use a hyphen only to link last element: lung cancer-focused nonprofit.
Numerals
Examples
three medications
10 approved treatments
four oncologists, 11 surgeons, and seven pulmonologists
sixth place, 15th revision
fifth century, 21st century
3 ounces
6 miles
4-foot-long segment
stage IV adenocarcinoma
the 1980s, the '80s
No. 3 choice, but option 3
a pay increase of 12% to 15%
1 million
$12 million
a ratio of 2-to-1, a 2-1 ratio
minus 10 degrees, zero, 60 degrees
Guidelines
In general, spell out one through nine: The Yankees finished second. He had nine months to go.
Use figures for 10 or above and whenever preceding a unit of measure or referring to ages of people, animals, events, or things.
Use figures for:
ADDRESSES: 210 Main St. Spell out numbered streets nine and under: 5 Sixth Ave.; 3012 50th St. Use the abbreviations Ave., Blvd., and St. only with a numbered address: 1600 Pennsylvania Ave. Spell them out and capitalize without a number: Pennsylvania Avenue.
AGES: A 6-year-old girl; an 8-year-old law; the 7-year-old house. Use hyphens for ages expressed as adjectives before a noun or as substitutes for a noun: A 5-year-old boy, but the boy is 5 years old. The race is for 3-year-olds. The woman is in her 30s. 30-something, but Thirty-something to start a sentence.
CENTURIES: Use figures for numbers 10 or higher: 21st century. Spell out for numbers nine and lower: fifth century. (Note lowercase.)
DECIMALS, PERCENTAGES, AND FRACTIONS WITH NUMBERS LARGER THAN 1: 7.2 magnitude quake, 3½ laps, 3.7% interest, 4 percentage points. For amounts less than 1, precede the decimal with a zero: The cost of living rose 0.03%. Spell out fractions less than 1, using hyphens between the words: two-thirds, four-fifths.
DIMENSIONS AND DISTANCES: He is 5 feet, 6 inches tall, but the 5-foot-6 man ("inch" is understood), the 5-foot man, the basketball team signed a 7-footer. He walked 4 miles. He missed a 3-foot putt.
MATHEMATICAL USAGE: Multiply by 4, divide by 6.
MILLIONS, BILLIONS, TRILLIONS: Use a figure-word combination: 1 million people; $2 billion.
MONETARY UNITS: 5 cents, $5 bill, 8 euros, 4 pounds.
ODDS, PROPORTIONS, AND RATIOS: 3 parts cement to 1 part water; a 1 in 4 chance.
RANK: Lung cancer is the No. 1 cancer killer.
SCHOOL GRADES: 10th grade, fourth grade, fifth grader.
TEMPERATURES: Use figures, except zero. It was 8 degrees below zero or minus 8. The temperature dropped from 38 to 8 in two hours.
TIMES: Use figures for time of day except for noon and midnight: 1 pm; 10:30 am; 5 o'clock; 8 hours, 30 minutes, 20 seconds; a winning time of 2:17:3 (2 hours, 17 minutes, 3 seconds). Spell out numbers less than 10 standing alone and in modifiers: I'll be there in five minutes. He scored with two seconds left. An eight-hour day. The two-minute warning.
Spell out:
AT THE START OF A SENTENCE: In general, spell out numbers at the start of a sentence: Forty years was a long time to wait. Fifteen to 20 cars were involved in the accident.
IN INDEFINITE AND CASUAL USES: Thanks a million. He walked a quarter of a mile; an eleventh-hour decision; a hundred dollars.
ROMAN NUMERALS: Roman numerals are used for cancer stages (I, IIa, III, IV). They may be used for wars and to establish personal sequence for people and animals: World War I, Native Dancer II, King George V; and for certain legislative acts (Title IX).
ORDINAL NUMBERS: Ordinal numbers indicate position in a series: first, second, third, fourth, fifth. Spell out first through ninth: fourth grade, first base, the First Amendment, he was first in line. Use figures starting with 10th. Do not use superscript.
CARDINAL NUMBERS: Cardinal numbers indicate an amount—how many of something we have: four books, 12 patients.
Using cardinals when writing dates. Although we pronounce dates using ordinal numbers, "November 15th,” “May 10th,” and “September first,” we write them as cardinals: November 15, May 10, and September 1.
Periods
Examples
Omit periods with most abbreviations.
MD
PhD
BS
BA
US
UK
But use periods with these:
vs.
i.e. (means that is; follow with comma)
e.g. (means for example; follow with comma)
No. (for number, as in No. 1)
Guidelines
END OF DECLARATIVE SENTENCE: The stylebook is finished.
END OF A MILDLY IMPERATIVE SENTENCE: Shut the door.
Use an exclamation point if greater emphasis is desired: Be careful!
END OF SOME RHETORICAL QUESTIONS: A period is preferable if a statement is more a suggestion than a question: Why don't we go.
END OF AN INDIRECT QUESTION: He asked what the score was.
INITIALS: John F. Kennedy, T.S. Eliot (No space between T. and S., to prevent them from being placed on two lines in typesetting.)
Abbreviations using only the initials of a name do not take periods: JFK, LBJ.
ENUMERATIONS: After numbers or letters in enumerating elements of a summary: 1. Wash the car. 2. Clean the basement. Or: A. Punctuate properly. B. Write simply.
PLACEMENT WITH QUOTATION MARKS: Periods always go inside quotation marks.
PERIODS: Do not use periods with most abbreviations. See the Abbreviations section.
SPACING: Use a single space after a period at the end of a sentence.